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Financing iv. Acquisition cycle 5. Two principal methodologies for establishing the essential information requirements of the organization as whole are enterprise analysis and success factors. Enterprise Analysis Business Systems Planning Enterprise analysis argues that the firm's information requirements can only be understood by looking at the entire organization units, functions, processes, and data Santosh Dhungana MIS Version 1.

Enterprise analysis can help identify the key entities and attributes of the organization's data. The central method used in the enterprise analysis approach is to take a large sample of managers and ask them how they use information, where they get their information, what their environments are like, what their objectives are, how they make decision, and what their data needs are, and how they make decision and what their data needs are.

The results of these large surveys of managers are aggregated into sub units, functions, processes and data matrices. Data elements are organized into logical application groups- groups of data elements that support related sets of organizational processes. The weakness of enterprise analysis is that it produces an enormous amount of data i. Most of the interviews are conducted with senior or middle managers, but there is little effort to collect information from clerical workers and supervisory managers.

CSFs are shaped by the industry, the firm, the manager and the broader environment. An important premise of the strategic analysis approach is that there are a small number of objectives that managers can easily identify and on which information systems can focus. The principle methods used in CSFs analysis is personal interviews 3 or 4 with a number of top manager to identify their goals and resulting CSFs.

Then systems are built to develop and deliver information of these CSFs. The strength of the CSFs method is that it produces a smaller data sat to analyze then enterprise analyze analysis. Only top managers are interviewed and the questions focus on the small number of CSFs rather than a broad enquiry into what information is used or needed.

The CSFs method takes into account the changing environment with which organizations and managers must deal. Unlike enterprise analysis, the CSFs method of focuses organizational attention how information should be handed. Small of these system projects represents radical restructuring of their business processes, whereas others entail more incremental change. This restructuring of their business processes is called business process re-engineering eliminating repetitive tasks.

Work flow management:- The process of stream lining business procedures so that documents can e moved easily and efficiently is called workflow management. Steps in Effective Re-engineering - Senior management needs to develop a broad strategic vision that calls for re- designing business processes.

Eg: if the objective of process redesign is to reduce time and cost in developing a new product or finding an order, the organization needs to measure the time and cost consumed by the unchanged process. Following these steps it does not automatically guaranteed that re-engineering will always be successful. Fear of changes develops resistance, confusion and even conscious to undermine the change effort.

The scope of re-engineering projects had widened, adding to their complexity. TQM Total Quality Management A concept that makes quality control a responsibility to be shared by all people in an organization. Sin Sigma A specific measure of quality, representing 3. How the IS support quality improvements???? Simplifying the product r the production process. Benchmarking: setting strict standards for products, services or activities and measuring organizational performance against those standards.

Use customer demands as a guide to improve products and services. Reduce cycle time. Improve the quality and precision of the design 6. Increase the precision of production. System development The activities that go into producing an information systems solution to an organizational problem or opportunity are called system development. These activities consist of system analysis, system design, programming, testing, conversion and production and maintenance. These activities usually take place in a sequential order.

But some of the activities may need to be repeated or some may to taking place simultaneously depending on approach to system building i. Note that each activities interaction with the organization. Systems Analysis System analysis is the analysis of the problem that the organization will try to solve with an information system.

It consists of defining the problem, identifying it caused, specifying the solution, and identifying the information requirements that must be met by system solution.

Generally it is the role of a system analyst to perform these jobs. The system analysis creates a road map of the existing organization and systems, identifying the primary owner and users of data in the organization. In addition to these organizational aspects, the analyst also briefly describes the existing hardware and software that serve the organization.

Feasibility study The system analysis would include a feasibility study to determine whether that solution was feasible, or achievable, from a financial, technical and organizational stand point. Normally the system analysis processes will identify several alternative solutions that the organization can pursue. Information Requirements A detailed statement of the information needs that a new system must specify; identifies who needs that information, when that information is needed, where and how the information is needed.

System Design It is a detail of how a system will meet information requirements as determined by the system analysis. Like blueprints of a building or house, it consists of all the specifications.

Programming The process of translating the system specifications prepared during the design stage into program code.

Testing The exhaustive and through process that determines whether the system produces the desired results under know conditions. Sometimes called program testing. Unit testing in multiple units results integration test. Alpha test abd Beta test encomprise acceptance test.

Conversion Conversion is the process of changing form the old system to the new system. Four main conversion strategies be employed: the parallel strategy, the direct cutover strategy, the pilot study strategy, and the phased approach strategy. Production and Maintenance After the new system is installed and conversion is complete, the system is said to be in production. During this stage the system will be reviewed by both user and technical specialists to determine how well it has met its original objectives and decide whether any revisions or modifications are in order.

Changes in hardware, software, documentation, or procedures to production system to correct errors, meet new requirements, or improve processing efficiency are termed maintenance. The introduction of new information technology has a ripple of effect, raising new ethical, social and political issues that must be dealt with on the individual, social and political lavels. Information technology and information systems raise new ethical questions for both individuals and societies because they create opportunities for intense social change and thus threaten existing distributions of power, money, rights, and obligations.

Like other technology such as steam engines, electricity, telephone and radio, IT can be used to commit crimes and threaten social values. The development of information technology will produce benefits for many and costs for others. So ethical and socially responsible course of actions should be understood and identify for using information systems. Its relation can be shown as above diagram. The relation is the result of ripple effect. From ethical issues social issues are generated which in terms generates political issues.

What information rights do individuals and organizations posses with respect to information about them self? What can they protect? Accountability and Control Who can and will be held accountable and liable for the harm done to individual and collective information and property rights? System Quality What values and system quality as well as standards of data should we demand to protect individual rights and the safety of society? Quality of Life What values should be preserved in information and knowledge based society?

What institution should we protect from violation? What cultural values and practices are supported by the new information technology? Trend Impact 1 Computing power double every 18 months More organization depends on computer system for critical operations.

Responsibility: Accepting the potentials costs, duties and obligation for the decision one works. Accountability The mechanism for accessing responsibility for decision mode and action taken.

Liability The existence of laws that permit individual to recover this damage done to them by other actors, systems or organizations. Identify and describe clearly the facts.

Define the conflicts or determine and identify the higher order values involved. Identify the stakeholder. Identify the option that you can reasonably take. Identify the potential consequences of your option. The moral dimension of IS i. Information Rights:- Privacy and Freedom in the internet age. Privacy:- The claim of individuals to be left alone, free from interference from other individuals, organizations or the state.

Laws ii. Users can use P3P to select the level of privacy they wish to maintain when interacting with the website. Privacy Protection Tools a.

Managing Cookies b. Blocking ADS Control ads that pop up based user profiles and prevent ads from collecting or sending information. BHOCop, Adsubstract. Encrypting email or data Scramble email or data so that they cannot be read. Anonymizers Allow users to surf the web without being identified or to send anonymous email. Example: anonymizer. Property Rights : Intellectual Property a. Trade secrets b.

Copyright c. Patents d. Trade Secret Any confidential business information which provides an enterprise a competitive edge bay be considered a trade secret. Trade secrets encompass manufacturing or industrial secrets and commercial secrets.

The subject matter of trade secrets is usually defined n broad terms and incudes sakes method distribution methods, consumer profiles, advertising strategies lists of suppliers and clients and manufacturing processes. A trade secret is an invented formula practice, process, design, instrument pattern commercial method or compilation of information which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable by others and by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers.

Copyright It is a legal right created by the law of a country, that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights to its use and distribution usually for a limited time, with the intention of enabling the creator e. The photographer of a photograph or the author of a book to receive compensation for their intellectual effort. Copyright is a form of intellectual property, applicable to any expressed representation of a creative work. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work and who are commonly referred to as right holders.

Patents It is set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assign for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention An invention is a solution to a specific technology problem and is a product or a process.

Patents are a form of intellectual property. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property rights. It criminalizes production and dissemination of technology, devices or services intended to circumvent measures commonly known as digital rights management or DRM that control access to copyrighted works.

It also criminalizes the act of circumventing an access control, whether or not there is actual infringement of copyright itself. In addition, the DCMA heightens the penalties for copyright infringement on the internet.

Accountability, Liability and Control It is challenging existing liability law and social practices for holding individuals and institutions accountable. System Quality Three principle sources of poor system performance are:- 1. Software bugs and errors. Hardware or facility failure caused by natural or other causes. Poor input data quality. Quality of Life Equity access and boundaries: Computer and IT potentially can destroy valuable elements of our culture and society even while they bring us benefits.

If there is a balance of good and bad consequences of using information system, whom do we hold responsible for bad consequences. Some negative social consequences of social system are a. Balancing power: Center vs. Periphery b. Rapidity of change: Reduced response time to competition. Maintaining boundaries: Family, work and leisure. Dependence and Vulnerability: Today our business, governments, schools and private associations such as churches are incredibly dependent on information system and on therefore highly vulnerable if these systems should fail.

Computer crime abuse f. Employment: re-engineering loss g. Equity and Access: Increasing racial and social class gaps Eg: Digital divide h. Why systems are vulnerable???? Fig Telecommunication networks are highly vulnerable to natural failure of hardware and software and to misuse by programmers, computer operators, maintenance staff and end-users.

It is possible to tap communications lines and illegally intercept data. High speed transformation over twisted wire communication channels causes interfaces called crosstalk. Radiations can disrupt a network at various point as well. Internal threats :Employees: see urself Hacker: A hacker is a person who gains unauthorized access to a computer network for profits, criminal mischief, or personal pleasure. Security: Policies, procedures and technical measures used to prevent unauthorized access, atteraction, theft or physical damage to information system.

Types of Information System Controls Controls:- Controls consists of all the methods, policies, and organizational procedures that ensure the safety of the organizations assets, the accuracy and reliability of its accounting records, and the operational adherence to management standards. Generic Control General controls govern the design, security and use of computer programs and the security of data files in general throughout the organizations IT infrastructure. General controls apply to all computerized applications and consist of a combination of hardware, software and manual procedures that create an overall control environment.

General controls include software controls, physical hardware controls, computer operations control, data security controls, controls over the systems implementation process, and administrative control.

Most of these controls are designed and maintained by information systems specialist except data security controls and administrative controls which require input and oversight from end users and business managers. Hardware Control Ensure that computer is physically secure and check for equipment malfunction. Computer equipment should be specially protected against fire and extreme temperature and humanity. Organizations that are critically dependent on their computers also must make provision for backup or continued operation to maintain constant services.

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